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English for Research: Usage, Style, and Grammar

Сумата се прибавя директно в кошницата

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Contents

1 Nouns: plurals, countable versus uncountable 1

1.1 regular plurals 1

1.2 irregular plurals 2

1.3 nouns ending in -s 3

1.4 nouns indicating a group of people 4

1.5 number-verb agreement 5

1.6 countable nouns: use with articles 6

1.7 singular countable nouns: use with and without

a /an in scientific English 7

1.8 uncountable nouns: general rules 8

1.9 uncountable nouns: using a different word or form 9

1.10 uncountable nouns: more details 10

2 Genitive: the possessive form of nouns 11

2.1 position of the S with authors and referees 12

2.2 theories, instruments etc 13

2.3 companies and politicians 15

2.4 universities, departments, institutes etc 15

2.5 animals 16

2.6 genitive with inanimate objects 17

2.7 periods of time 17

3 Indefinite article: a / an 19

3.1 a versus an: basic rules 19

3.2 a versus an: use with acronyms, digits, and symbols 20

3.3 a / an versus one 21

3.4 a / an versus the: generic versus specific 22

3.5 a / an versus the: definitions and statements 23

3.6 a / an, the, possessive pronoun: parts of the body 24

4 Definite article: the 25

4.1 definite article (the): main usage 25

4.2 specific versus general: examples 26

4.3 other uses of the definite article 27

5 Zero article: no article 29

5.1 zero article versus definite article (the): main usage 29

5.2 other uses of the zero article 30

5.3 nationalities, countries, languages 31

5.4 zero article and the: contradictory usage

in scientific English 32

5.5 zero article versus a / an 33

5.6 zero article and a / an: contradictory usage

in scientific English 34

6 Quantifiers: any, some, much, many, each, every etc 35

6.1 quantifiers used with countable and uncountable nouns .... 35

6.2 any versus some 37

6.3 any versus no 38

6.4 a little, a few vs. little, few 38

6.5 much, many, a lot of, and lots of 39

6.6 each versus every, every versus any 40

6.7 no versus not 41

7 Relative pronouns: that, which, who, whose 43

7.1 that, which, who, whose 43

7.2 that versus which and who 44

7.3 omission of that, which and who 45

7.4 avoiding ambiguity by using a relative clause

in preference to the -ing form 47

7.5 avoid long and difficult-to-read sentences involving which . 48

7.6 avoid ambiguity with which 48

8 Tenses: present, past, future 49

8.1 present simple vs present continuous: key rules 49

8.2 present perfect: key rules 50

8.3 present perfect: problem areas 52

8.4 past simple: key rules 53

8.5 present simple vs past simple: specific rules

(aims and methods) 54

8.6 present simple, present perfect and simple past:

reference to the literature 55

8.7 present simple vs past simple: specific rules

(results and discussion) 56

8.8 present perfect vs present perfect continuous 57

8.9 past continuous and past perfect vs simple past 57

8.10 will 58

9 Conditional forms: zero, first, second, third 59

9.1 zero and first conditional 59

9.2 second conditional 60

9.3 other uses of would 61

9.4 present simple versus would. 62

9.5 third conditional 63

10 Passive versus active: impersonal versus

personal forms 65

10.1 main uses of passive 66

10.2 passive better than active: more examples 67

10.3 active better than passive 68

10.4 ambiguity with passive 69

11 Imperative, infinitive versus gerund (-ing form) 71

11.1 imperative 71

11.2 infinitive 72

11.3 in order to 73

11.4 passive infinitive 74

11.5 perfect infinitive 74

11.6 gerund (-ing form): usage 75

11.7 by versus thus + gerund to avoid ambiguity 76

11.8 other sources of ambiguity with the gerund 77

11.9 replacing an ambiguous gerund with that or which,

or with a rearranged phrase 78

11.10 verbs that express purpose or appearance + infinitive ..... 78

11.11 verbs that require an accusative construction

(i.e. person / thing + infinitive) 79

11.12 active and passive form: with and without infinitive 80

11.13 active form: verbs not used with the infinitive 80

11.14 let and make 81

11.15 verbs + gerund, r^ecommend, suggest 82

11.16 verbs that take both infinitive and gerund 83

12 Modal verbs: can, may, could, should, must etc 85

12.1 present and future ability and possibility:

can versus may 85

12.2 impossibility and possibility: cannot versus may not 87

12.3 ability: can, could versus be able to, manage, succeed 88

12.4 deductions and speculations about the present: must,

cannot, should 89

12.5 deductions and speculations: could, might (not) 90

12.6 present obligations: must, must not, have to, need. 91

12.7 past obligation: should have + past participle,

had to, was supposed to 92

12.8 obligation and recommendation: should 93

13 Link words (adverbs and conjunctions):

also, although, but etc 95

13.1 about, as far as •…is concerned 95

13.2 also, in addition, as well, besides, moreover 96

13.3 also, as well, too, both, all: use with not 97

13.4 although, even though versus even if 97

13.5 and, along with 98

13.6 as versus as it 99

13.7 as versus like (unlike) 99

1 3.8 as, because, due to, for, insofar as, owing to,

since, why 100

13.9 both …and, either …or

13.10 e.g. versus for example

13.11 e.g., i.e., etc

13.12 for this reason versus for this purpose, to this end.....

13.13 the former, the latter

13.14 however, although, but, yet, despite, nevertheless,

nonetheless, notwithstanding

13.15 however versus nevertheless

13.16 in contrast with vs. compared to, by comparison with.

13.17 instead, on the other hand, whereas, on the contrary

13.18 thus, therefore, hence, consequently, so, thereby

13.19 omission of words in sentences with and, but, both

and or

Adverbs and prepositions: already, yet, at, in, of etc

14.1 above (below), over (under)

14.2 across, through

14.3 already, still, yet

14.4 among, between, from, of (differentiation

and selection)

14.5 at, in, to (location, state, change)

14.6 at, in and on (time)

14.7 at, to (measurement, quality)

1 4.8 before, after, beforehand, afterwards,

first (time sequences)

14.9 beside, next to, near (to), close to (location)

14.10 by and from (cause, means and origin)

14.11 by, in, of (variations)

14.12 by and within (time)

14.13 by now, for now, for the moment, until now, so far

14.14 during, over and throughout (time)

14.15 for, since, from (time)

14.16 in, now, currently, at the moment

14.17 in, inside, within (location)

14.18 of and with (material, method, agreement)

Sentence length, conciseness, clarity and ambiguity

15.1 maximum two ideas per sentence

15.2 put information in chronological order, particularly

in the methods section

15.3 avoid parenthetical phrases

15.4 avoid redundancy

15.5 prefer verbs to nouns

15.6 use adjectives rather than nouns

15.7 be careful of use of personal pronouns: you, one, he,

she, they